Investimenti ambientali per Kyoto nell'Area Balcanica - Technologies




	QUICK NAVIGATION POWER GENERATION ENERGY EFFICIENCY WASTE-TO-ENERGY FUEL SWITCHING FORESTRY POWER GENERATION BIOMASS Biomass refers to any organic substance – whether vegetable or animal – that can be gathered and converted into electricity and heat or used to make chemical substitutes for petroleum products (biofuels). Biomass includes all varieties of wood products, straw and all fibrous agricultural residues, untreated organic by-products of the wood processing and paper industries and organic material derived from the biological activities of animals and humans or contained in municipal solid waste (so-called “organic” rubbish). The technologies currently available to covert biomass into energy include: direct combustion, carbonization, pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic and aerobic digestion, alcohol fermentation, extraction of oils, biodiesel production and steam explosion. For further information (in Italian) Montenegro and Serbia best placed for the use of wood residues Montenegro and Serbia are best placed for CDM projects that seek to use wood residues as fuel for electricity generation. In Montenegro, the Italian Environment Ministry has identified three projects. The first two, in the north of the country, involve the construction of a regional power plant to be fired with wood residues from local factories and forests. At the third project, biomass would be substituted for fossil fuels at a wood-processing factory in Pljevlja. Two CDM projects have also been picked out in Serbia. As in Montenegro, the first one – which involves the town of Ivanjica – foresees the construction of an electricity-generation plant fed with residue from local wood-processing companies. The second project, however, is part of the wider forestation initiative at the nature reserve of Deliblatska Pescara; the aim is to use the hawthorn that is due to be removed from the site along with waste wood produced from forest maintenance to heat the “Nature School” educational centre. Another project involves the installation of a wood-fuelled power plant. In the town of Kocani, in eastern Macedonia, the ministry has identified a CDM project that involves the installation at a paper mill of a boiler that will be used to produce energy from the agricultural waste produced by local rice cultivation. There are no biomass projects in Albania. View details of biomass projects WIND POWER Wind power is a means of capturing the kinetic energy implicit in the movement of the air. This energy is converted by the blades of wind turbine into rotational mechanical energy, which can be used by the generator to produce electricity. Since the peculiarities of the landscape and environment lead to variations in the strength and direction of the wind, wind farms can be located only in selected areas on the basis of a detailed analysis of biological, geo-morphological and socio-cultural indicators. For further information (in Italian) Pilot projects ready for start-up Albania, Macedonia and Serbia are ready to give the go-ahead to pilot wind farms. Albania in particular has estimated that 4% of its electricity could come from wind generation by 2020 and is giving priority treatment to the construction of 20 wind farms near to the 20 pumping stations along the Adriatic coast that protect the land from flooding. The first CDM project that the Italian Environment Ministry has identified involves the construction of a wind farm with 15 megawatts of capacity in the Sarande area, which studies have shown would be quite suitable for the generation of wind power. In Macedonia, a pilot project has been selected for a 7.5-megawatt wind farm in the region of Gjuriste, which involves the construction of a large number of smaller turbines. There is also the potential for wind power in Serbia, with a pilot project for a wind farm in the southeast of the country, which has been identified as the area with the best potential for wind power. The generators would here have a combined capacity of 20 megawatts. There are no wind projects envisaged for Montenegro. View details of wind projects Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is obtained from heat in the Earth’s crust. Temperatures rise everywhere on our planet as you go deeper underground – on average by 3°C every 100 metres – but there are places with unusually sharp geothermal gradients, where the extra heat reaches 9-12°C every 100 metres. The thermal energy that’s available underground can be tapped by using liquid vectors such as water and steam, which either occur naturally or are injected. The liquids come to the surface from the geothermal chamber either under their own pressure (geysers, blowholes, thermal springs) or artificially by drilling geothermal wells. When the water or steam reaches the surface, it’s sent into geothermal power plants or used in district heating, water supplies, greenhouse heating, industrial applications and so on. For further information (in italian) Macedonia paves the way for geothermal energy The Italian Environment Ministry has singled out only one geothermal CDM project. It’s to be located at Bansko, in Macedonia, and involves completing the main heating network in this village in the southeast of the country. The project would replace the use of coal, light and heavy oil as well as wood with geothermal energy, leading to a significant improvement in air quality. The work would be based around an existing well that provides heat to a thermal baths facility, a hotel and greenhouses and also hot tap water to a hospital and smaller hotels. But the system is primitive and lacks proper control of the heat supply and a centralised management and maintenance system. The project examined by the ministry would involve the completion of two geothermal wells as well as a central distribution facility and pipes running to the various consumers. No other such projects have been so far identified in the Balkans. View details of geothermal project HYDROELECTRIC POWER Hydroelectric power involves producing electricity from a body of water, exploiting the potential energy that is released in a waterfall or other drop in altitude. The hydraulic equipment captures the mechanical potential energy contained in the water, which must be available at a certain height above the turbines. Hydroelectric plants are usually classified based on their installed capacity: Large: more than 10,000 kilowatts (KW) Small: between 1,000 and 10,000 KW Mini: between 100 and 1,000 KW Micro: less than 100 KW. Hydroelectricity currently accounts for 19% of the world’s electricity generation. For further information (in Italian) Attention focuses on mini-hydro plants Albania, Montenegro and Serbia are all interested in developing mini-hydro plants. No hydro project has been found in Macedonia, however. In Albania, the Italian Environment Ministry has identified five CDM projects for the construction of mini-hydro plants: they include a plant at Vukel with an estimated capacity of 14,000 kilowatts (KW), another in the region of Elbasan with a capacity of 8,000 KW and a third on the river Zalli Bulqizes, with a capacity of 5,350 KW. In the city of Dibra, there is a project to build three, linked mini-hydro plants with a combined capacity of 10,500 KW. The final plant, of 5,400 KW, could be built on the river Kardhiq. In Montenegro, a project has been chosen to build a mini-hydro plant at Sjevernica, with a capacity of 650 KW and another to revamp seven old mini-hydro plants, with a total capacity of 9,000 KW. Furthermore, Montenegro’s state electricity company is drawing up a list of potential projects for small-scale hydro plants. Two important projects have been earmarked in Serbia. The first is for the construction of three small plants on the river Nisava, with capacities of 1,350 KW, 2,588 KW and 4,057 KW. The second is again for the construction of a group of three stations, with capacities of 3,000 KW, 850 KW and 620 KW, that would harness the potential of the Danube-Tibisco-Danube river system in the autonomous region of Vojvodina. It’s possible that other projects in the same area may be identified for the construction of another nine plants. View details of hydro projects SOLAR Energy The sun’s energy arrives on Earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It’s a clean, unlimited and abundant energy source, but one that’s not always available. In addition, it varies depending on the weather and latitude. Photovoltaic technologies transform the energy contained in the sun’s radiation into electricity through the photoelectric effect. The conversion process takes place in a solar cell, a device made of a specially treated semi-conducting material, usually silicon. An electric field is created inside the solar cell so as to align the charge generated by the interaction of the photons in sunlight and the semi-conducting, electronic structure, thereby producing a flow of electric current. Solar energy can also be converted into heat using panels that warm water to relatively low temperatures, for use as tap water or for heating.So far, no CDM project has been identified in the Balkan countries using solar energy. But there are good prospects in Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro. For further information (in Italian) ENERGY EFFICIENCY This category covers any investment that aims to bring about better energy use. In housing, this can be achieved with thermal insulation, double-glazing, new lighting systems and so on. As for industry, there are systems to harness part of the energy that otherwise goes to waste in the form of fumes or steam and re-use it in other industrial processes or sell it for district heating. For further information (in Italian) Public and private sector look to energy saving Out with those old mercury vapour lamps, in with sodium. The shift to more efficient energy use also means more double-glazing and better insulation as well as greater use of technologies that allow energy-intensive industries to consume and pollute less. There is a large number of CDM projects that are related to energy efficiency highlighted by the Italian Environment Ministry in the four Balkan countries, involving both the public sector (hospitals, street lighting, etc.) and the private (heavy industry). There are several projects to improve energy efficiency in Albania, including at the Mother Theresa hospital in Tirana, the country’s biggest, and at the halls of residence at the University of Tirana. The work to be done includes thermal insulation of the buildings, the installation of double-glazing and the insulation of heating pipes. There are various street lighting projects in Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia, which involve the substitution of mercury vapour lamps with those using sodium. The latter are more efficient and have an average life of three years compared with only one for mercury-based bulbs. CDM projects to enhance energy use in industry have been identified in Albania (at the Ballsh refinery and the Elbasan steelworks), in Montenegro (a project at KAP, the main non-ferrous metals plant in the country) and in Serbia (involving Hip-Azotara, the largest producer of fertilizers and nitric compounds in the Balkans, and the three main energy-intensive factories of Sladara, Bozo Tomic and Fra). View details of energy efficiency projects WASTE-TO-ENERGY LANDFILL BIOGAS The first decomposition process that occurs in a mass of waste sent to landfill – composed mainly of organic material such as food leftovers and paper – is aerobic fermentation, which releases carbon dioxide (CO₂). Later, when the oxygen in the rubbish falls to minimal levels, anaerobic fermentation starts, forming a gassy mix of methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and small amounts of other gases such as hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), hydrogen (H₂), nitrogen (N₂), which are responsible for the unpleasant smells. The techniques for extracting, storing and burning landfill biogas mean that much of the methane content is turned into carbon dioxide, reducing greenhouse-gas emissions, bad smells and the risk of explosions. There are even technologies for using this biogas instead of fossil fuels to produce electricity. Cutting pollution and the risk of explosions All of the four Balkan countries are seeking to reduce the environmental impact of their landfill sites. Serbia is leading the way, with six CDM projects for capturing and burning biogas, followed by Macedonia with five. Albania and Montenegro have three projects each. Some of them are joint projects involving several landfill sites. All the locations are managed by state companies that, together with the local councils, will act as partners in the projects singled out by the Italian Environment Ministry. The clear aim is to cap the release of biogas into the atmosphere, reduce bad smells and prevent explosions and fires. The projects will also help create jobs. The key sites in Serbia are the landfill sites of Novi Sad, Kragujevac, Kikinda and of Uzice, Pozega and Cacak (these three are part of a joint project) as well as those of Kraljevo and Nis. Similarly, Macedonia is aiming to improve the environmental impact of the landfill sites of Drisla in the village of Batinci, Krasta (near Kumanovo), Meglenci (near Bitola), Sapkar, which serves Strumica and Vasilievo, Trestena Skala in Stip and those of the towns of Kocani and Vinica (these last three are part of a joint project). Albania’s priorities regard the sites of Durazzo, Elbasan and Vlore, while in Montenegro the first projects regard the sites of Pljevlja and Niksic (a joint project), Lovanja at Kotor and Podgorica. This final project goes further than the others in that a biogas-fuelled power-generation plant is also envisaged. BIOGAS FROM STOCK FARMING AND INDUSTRY On the farm, the main environmental problem resides in disposing properly of manure, which can pollute aquifers and releases methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the air. Balkan countries have passed laws forbidding the dumping of manure in watercourses, but there is no legislation requiring a particular treatment of this waste. Modern technology, however, can recover and burn this biogas, turning the methane into carbon dioxide and reducing emissions into the atmosphere and bad smells and helping to preserve surface and underground water sources. As at landfill sites, this biogas can also be used to produce electricity, substituting fossil fuels. Serbia is at the forefront in biogas development Serbia is leading the way with biogas recovery projects. It has six such CDM projects in all, of which five are on farms and one to be located at a distillery, while there are three projects in Macedonia and one in Montenegro. There are no projects in the pipeline in Albania. All the projects have the goal of avoiding water pollution and bad odours, on top of reducing emissions into the air. In some cases, the biogas is to be used instead of fossil fuels to heat stables (or pigsties). In Serbia, the Italian Environment Ministry has selected four pig farms (one in Obrenovac, two in Backa Topola and another at Pancevo) and a buffalo farm near Belgrade, where gas-recovery systems can be installed. In addition, there is the Alpis distillery at Kovin, which is looking to install an anaerobic digester for the extraction of biogas on an existing wastewater treatment unit. At a later stage, the biogas could be used to produce heat for the distillery’s production processes, in place of fossil fuels. In Macedonia, three CDM projects have been picked out involving various pig farms (one at Tetovo, four at Veles and one at Cicevo), which are keen to improve their management of manure and, at a later stage, use the biogas as a fuel to heat the pigsties.A similar project is envisaged in Montenegro at the Spuz pig farm. View details of waste-to-energy projects FUEL SWITCHING This category includes any effort to substitute highly polluting fuels with ones that have a lower environmental impact and, ideally, are also less dangerous for workers. Macedonia: from fuel oil to natural gas The main aim of the CDM projects selected by the Italian Environment Ministry is to replace dirty fuels with those that are kinder to the environment, such as switching from fuel oil to natural gas or biomass. Macedonia, for example, has a project to replace fuel oil with natural gas at one of Skopje’s five power stations. Apart from cutting air pollution significantly, the investment should improve working conditions at the plant because it would eliminate the risk of fuel oil spillages. In Montenegro, a project has been drawn up to use biomass instead of fossil fuels at a wood-processing plant at Pljevlja. The aim is to be able to produce electricity while at the same time replace the fuels used in the production process with wood residues (see also under Biomass, above). Another fuel-switching project exists in Serbia and is part of the wider forestation initiative at the Deliblatska Pescara nature reserve. Two options have been outlined: the first is to use hawthorn due to be removed from the reserve and wood waste produced by maintenance to fuel a new boiler that would heat the “Nature School” educational centre. The second involves installing a power-generation plant to be fed with wood fuel (see also under Biomass and Forestry). No such projects have been identified in Albania. View details of fuel switching projects FORESTRY CDM projects also cover forestry initiatives. These include both afforestation, where land that has been bare for at least 50 years is planted with trees, and reforestation, which involves returning land that has been converted to other uses back to its wooded state. These kinds of projects fall under the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms because forests, and to a lesser degree agricultural land and grasslands, act as carbon dioxide sinks, sucking in this greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. For further information (in Italian) Breathing new life into woods and degraded land The CDM projects picked out for development by the Italian Environment Ministry in these four Balkan countries involve renewing woods and land that has been degraded, abandoned or poorly used. They not only aim to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions but also to make the most of the local landscape, bring new job opportunities to these areas, preserve biodiversity and avert soil erosion. A reforestation project has been selected in the Albanian district of Kukes that involves the replanting of the most run-down strips of land, subject to uncontrolled grazing or poor forestry management. There are the prerequisites for a CDM afforestation project in a semi-arid area of central Macedonia that has been practically stripped of vegetation, where the grazing and agricultural land has been abandoned or degraded. Another project has been picked out in northern Montenegro where an area running alongside the river Lim is exposed to soil erosion. The aim is to plant poorly kept grazing and agricultural land with trees.For Serbia, on the other hand, there are plans to create green belts at Kikinda to protect prime agricultural land from the wind, since this land is the main source of revenue for the local inhabitants. Another, larger project regards the Deliblatska Pescara nature reserve, in the east of the country, where there are plans to plant trees on sandy land that’s currently covered with hawthorn View details of the forestry projects